Information - Revision history

Caseorganic at 10:20, 9 November 2011

2011-11-09T10:20:49Z

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	[[Category:Book Pages]]		[[Category:Book Pages]]
	[[Category:~~Marked for Editing~~]]		[[Category:Finished]]

Caseorganic at 10:20, 9 November 2011

2011-11-09T10:20:30Z

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	===Definition===		===Definition===
	In our modern techno-cultural discourse, “information” has become a ubiquitous term for all types of knowledge and communication, but this was not always the case. The cultural seeding of “information” took place in WWII, the war that saw the first programmable computer (used to break Nazi enigma ciphers) and the first use of systematic information warfare. Hitler used media to disseminate his message across all of Germany, most notably harnessing the broadcasting power of the PA system during rallies and the radio for national addresses. The US also practiced information warfare, with an unprecedented use of radio to destabilize the Axis powers and strict monitoring of civilian activities.		In our modern techno-cultural discourse, “information” has become a ubiquitous term for all types of knowledge and communication, but this was not always the case. Information was first formulated as a mathematical-theoretical entity by Claude Shannon in his 1948 paper “The Mathematical Theory of Communication”. In this paper, information is posited as a probability function of a given message, allowing mathematicians to compute the most efficient way to encode any message. In Shannon’s theory, all communication can in principle be reduced to binary code, allowing “meaningful” communication to transcend the “noise”, chaos, or entropy that is understood as the backdrop to communication.<ref>Hayles gives a good example of how Shannon’s information theory works: Imagine a paranoid bookie who has a code for callers who are placing a bet. When the caller places a bet, there is a message that necessitates a binary response (“If your number is between 1-16, press 1, between 17-32, press 2”). Through five of these questions/binary responses, the program will know your number (If between 1-8, If between 1-4, If 1 or 2, If 1), because 32=25. Therefore information can be understood as I=log2N, N being the number of possibilities in a given communication, assuming equal probability of each option.

	Although technology has played a key role in every war, in WWII technology entered the American cultural imagination to an unprecedented degree. The Nazi’s V2 rockets (invented by Wernher Von Braun, who later designed most of NASA’s
	rockets) almost destroyed London, while the Allies’ victory hinged on Alan Turning’s (father of the computer and AI) use of computers to crack the Nazi enigma code and the Manhattan Project’s systematic coordinated research, which pioneered “Big Science” as we know it today. By the end of the war, it was widely understood that our technological prowess and control of information had kept us from all speaking German, and would continue to keep us from speaking Russian.

	Information was first formulated as a mathematical-theoretical entity by Claude Shannon in his 1948 paper “The Mathematical Theory of Communication”. In this paper, information is posited as a probability function of a given message, allowing mathematicians to compute the most efficient way to encode any message. In Shannon’s theory, all communication can in principle be reduced to binary code, allowing “meaningful” communication to transcend the “noise”, chaos, or entropy that is understood as the backdrop to communication.<ref>Hayles gives a good example of how Shannon’s information theory works: Imagine a paranoid bookie who has a code for callers who are placing a bet. When the caller places a bet, there is a message that necessitates a binary response (“If your number is between 1-16, press 1, between 17-32, press 2”). Through five of these questions/binary responses, the program will know your number (If between 1-8, If between 1-4, If 1 or 2, If 1), because 32=25. Therefore information can be understood as I=log2N, N being the number of possibilities in a given communication, assuming equal probability of each option.

	Since there is never a real-life situation in which ambiguity is nonexistent, some type of information can always be extrapolated from an utterance. Perhaps my friend said, “It is Thursday” because he thinks I have my head in the clouds, or because there are two Thursdays this particular week, causing general confusion.</ref> It was a theory designed to maximize efficiency in communication channels, allowing for the global telecommunications networks and internet we know today.		Since there is never a real-life situation in which ambiguity is nonexistent, some type of information can always be extrapolated from an utterance. Perhaps my friend said, “It is Thursday” because he thinks I have my head in the clouds, or because there are two Thursdays this particular week, causing general confusion.</ref> It was a theory designed to maximize efficiency in communication channels, allowing for the global telecommunications networks and internet we know today.

Caseorganic at 02:20, 31 July 2011

2011-07-31T02:20:44Z

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Caseorganic at 20:50, 3 July 2011

2011-07-03T20:50:02Z

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	unintelligent nature and is linked “to meaning, value, and life itself. Wiener even suggests		unintelligent nature and is linked “to meaning, value, and life itself. Wiener even suggests
	that the order- and form-generating power of information systems is basically analogous		that the order- and form-generating power of information systems is basically analogous
	to what some people call God.”<ref>Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River Press, 1998). p. 86.</ref> Information is our primary weapon against “nature’s		to what some people call God.”<ref>Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information. New York: Three River Press, 1998. p. 86.</ref> Information is our primary weapon against “nature’s
	[entropy’s] tendency to degrade the organized and to destroy the meaningful.”<ref>Ibid. p. 86</ref> Thus the		[entropy’s] tendency to degrade the organized and to destroy the meaningful.”<ref>Ibid. p. 86</ref> Thus the
	reification of information becomes complete in Wiener’s cosmologic extension of		reification of information becomes complete in Wiener’s cosmologic extension of

Caseorganic at 20:46, 3 July 2011

2011-07-03T20:46:47Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:46, 3 July 2011
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	unintelligent nature and is linked “to meaning, value, and life itself. Wiener even suggests		unintelligent nature and is linked “to meaning, value, and life itself. Wiener even suggests
	that the order- and form-generating power of information systems is basically analogous		that the order- and form-generating power of information systems is basically analogous
	to what some people call God.”<ref>Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River Press, 1998). p. 86</ref> Information is our primary weapon against “nature’s		to what some people call God.”<ref>Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River Press, 1998). p. 86.</ref> Information is our primary weapon against “nature’s
	[entropy’s] tendency to degrade the organized and to destroy the meaningful.”<ref>Ibid. p. 86</ref> Thus the		[entropy’s] tendency to degrade the organized and to destroy the meaningful.”<ref>Ibid. p. 86</ref> Thus the
	reification of information becomes complete in Wiener’s cosmologic extension of		reification of information becomes complete in Wiener’s cosmologic extension of

Caseorganic at 20:46, 3 July 2011

2011-07-03T20:46:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:46, 3 July 2011
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	successful communication, for if there is no ambiguity there is no lack for the information		successful communication, for if there is no ambiguity there is no lack for the information
	transfer to fill. If I know it is Thursday, an interlocutor stating, “It is Thursday” has little		transfer to fill. If I know it is Thursday, an interlocutor stating, “It is Thursday” has little
	information value.52 Thus information theory is about preserving the pattern of		information value.<ref>N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman : Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and
	communication against the onslaught of noise that is simultaneously required yet working		Informatics (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1999). p. 8</ref> Thus information theory is about preserving the pattern of communication against the onslaught of noise that is simultaneously required yet working
	in opposition to the pattern of communication.		in opposition to the pattern of communication.

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	Mathematically this made sense for Shannon and Wiener. Accounting for the range of		Mathematically this made sense for Shannon and Wiener. Accounting for the range of
	variables complicit in figuring out how much/what meaning someone is going to derive		variables complicit in figuring out how much/what meaning someone is going to derive
	from the communication would yield a vastly more complex theory.<ref>Donald MacKay’s information theory tries to do exactly this, and became the dominant paradigm in British Information Theory. MacKay’s theory was soon displaced as Wiener and		from the communication would yield a vastly more complex theory.<ref>Donald MacKay’s information theory tries to do exactly this, and became the dominant paradigm in British Information Theory. MacKay’s theory was soon displaced as Wiener and Shannon’s American theory became the industry standard. Hayles, How We Became Posthuman :
	Shannon’s American theory became the industry standard. Hayles, How We Became Posthuman :
	Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics. p. 56.</ref> Semantic meaning		Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics. p. 56.</ref> Semantic meaning
	is always dependent on context, yet information theory ignores context in favor of		is always dependent on context, yet information theory ignores context in favor of
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	Wiener contrasts information (associated with patterned organization, communication,		Wiener contrasts information (associated with patterned organization, communication,
	form, and coherence) with entropy (the force of disorder, randomness, and		form, and coherence) with entropy (the force of disorder, randomness, and
	disintegration).55 This move was partially justified by Shannon’s equation for information		disintegration).<ref>Ibid. p. 54.</ref> This move was partially justified by Shannon’s equation for information
	exactly matching Ludwig Boltzman’s equation for the second law of thermodynamics,		exactly matching Ludwig Boltzman’s equation for the second law of thermodynamics,
	also known as entropy.<ref>There is a very interesting story behind this math. When Shannon found the equation for		also known as entropy.<ref>There is a very interesting story behind this math. When Shannon found the equation for
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	unintelligent nature and is linked “to meaning, value, and life itself. Wiener even suggests		unintelligent nature and is linked “to meaning, value, and life itself. Wiener even suggests
	that the order- and form-generating power of information systems is basically analogous		that the order- and form-generating power of information systems is basically analogous
	to what some people call God.~~”58~~ Information is our primary weapon against “nature’s		to what some people call God.”<ref>Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River Press, 1998). p. 86</ref> Information is our primary weapon against “nature’s
	[entropy’s] tendency to degrade the organized and to destroy the meaningful.~~”59~~ Thus the		[entropy’s] tendency to degrade the organized and to destroy the meaningful.”<ref>Ibid. p. 86</ref> Thus the
	reification of information becomes complete in Wiener’s cosmologic extension of		reification of information becomes complete in Wiener’s cosmologic extension of
	Shannon’s laws of efficient communication.		Shannon’s laws of efficient communication.
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	==References==		==References==
	<references />		<references />
	~~N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman : Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and~~
	~~Informatics (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1999). p. 8~~

	~~Ibid. p. 54~~
	~~Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River~~
	~~Press, 1998). p. 86~~

	[[Category:Book Pages]]		[[Category:Book Pages]]
	[[Category:Marked for Editing]]		[[Category:Marked for Editing]]

Caseorganic at 20:43, 3 July 2011

2011-07-03T20:43:04Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:43, 3 July 2011
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	theory, all communication can in principle be reduced to binary code, allowing		theory, all communication can in principle be reduced to binary code, allowing
	“meaningful” communication to transcend the “noise”, chaos, or entropy that is		“meaningful” communication to transcend the “noise”, chaos, or entropy that is
	understood as the backdrop to communication.51 It was a theory designed to maximize		understood as the backdrop to communication.<ref>Hayles gives a good example of how Shannon’s information theory works: Imagine a paranoid bookie who has a code for callers who are placing a bet. When the caller places a bet, there is a
			message that necessitates a binary response (“If your number is between 1-16, press 1, between
			17-32, press 2”). Through five of these questions/binary responses, the program will know your
			number (If between 1-8, If between 1-4, If 1 or 2, If 1), because 32=25. Therefore information can
			be understood as I=log2N, N being the number of possibilities in a given communication,
			assuming equal probability of each option.

			Since there is never a real-life situation in which ambiguity is nonexistent, some type of
			information can always be extrapolated from an utterance. Perhaps my friend said, “It is
			Thursday” because he thinks I have my head in the clouds, or because there are two Thursdays
			this particular week, causing general confusion.</ref> It was a theory designed to maximize
	efficiency in communication channels, allowing for the global telecommunications		efficiency in communication channels, allowing for the global telecommunications
	networks and internet we know today.		networks and internet we know today.
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	Mathematically this made sense for Shannon and Wiener. Accounting for the range of		Mathematically this made sense for Shannon and Wiener. Accounting for the range of
	variables complicit in figuring out how much/what meaning someone is going to derive		variables complicit in figuring out how much/what meaning someone is going to derive
	from the communication would yield a vastly more complex theory.53 Semantic meaning		from the communication would yield a vastly more complex theory.<ref>Donald MacKay’s information theory tries to do exactly this, and became the dominant paradigm in British Information Theory. MacKay’s theory was soon displaced as Wiener and
			Shannon’s American theory became the industry standard. Hayles, How We Became Posthuman :
			Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics. p. 56.</ref> Semantic meaning
	is always dependent on context, yet information theory ignores context in favor of		is always dependent on context, yet information theory ignores context in favor of
	mathematical ease.		mathematical ease.
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	disintegration).55 This move was partially justified by Shannon’s equation for information		disintegration).55 This move was partially justified by Shannon’s equation for information
	exactly matching Ludwig Boltzman’s equation for the second law of thermodynamics,		exactly matching Ludwig Boltzman’s equation for the second law of thermodynamics,
	also known as entropy.56 Asking “is this devil [entropy] Manichean or Aristotelian?”,		also known as entropy.<ref>There is a very interesting story behind this math. When Shannon found the equation for
			information to be the same as the equation for entropy, he equated the two and saw information
			as entropy. Wiener took this equation and reversed it, defining information as the opposite of
			entropy. In mathematical terms, this is only a difference between a + and – sign in the equation,
			but Wiener’s interpretation of information became the dominant paradigm for understanding
			information, a paradigm that allowed him to make the larger metaphysical and cosmological
			metaphors that eventually became the basis of transhumanist metaphysics. Ibid.</ref> Asking “is this devil [entropy] Manichean or Aristotelian?”,
	Wiener comes to the conclusion that entropy, and by extension, Western science, is		Wiener comes to the conclusion that entropy, and by extension, Western science, is
	Aristotelian. We do not have to accept this conclusion to note the significance of Wiener’s		Aristotelian. We do not have to accept this conclusion to note the significance of Wiener’s
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	undecipherable methods for jamming our communication with the outer world”		undecipherable methods for jamming our communication with the outer world”
	The enemy is dumb and blind, Wiener says, “defeated by our intelligence as		The enemy is dumb and blind, Wiener says, “defeated by our intelligence as
	thoroughly as by a sprinkle of holy water.~~”57~~		thoroughly as by a sprinkle of holy water."<ref>Ibid. p. 90, Quoting Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1961).p. 36, 34</ref>

	With Wiener, information becomes the cybernetic “holy water” that defeats		With Wiener, information becomes the cybernetic “holy water” that defeats
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	==References==		==References==
			<references />
	N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman : Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and		N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman : Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and
	Informatics (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1999). p. 8		Informatics (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1999). p. 8
	~~51 Hayles gives a good example of how Shannon’s information theory works: Imagine a paranoid~~
	~~bookie who has a code for callers who are placing a bet. When the caller places a bet, there is a~~
	~~message that necessitates a binary response (“If your number is between 1-16, press 1, between~~
	~~17-32, press 2”). Through five of these questions/binary responses, the program will know your~~
	~~number (If between 1-8, If between 1-4, If 1 or 2, If 1), because 32=25. Therefore information can~~
	~~be understood as I=log2N, N being the number of possibilities in a given communication,~~
	~~assuming equal probability of each option.~~

	~~Since there is never a real-life situation in which ambiguity is nonexistent, some type of~~
	~~information can always be extrapolated from an utterance. Perhaps my friend said, “It is~~
	~~Thursday” because he thinks I have my head in the clouds, or because there are two Thursdays~~
	~~this particular week, causing general confusion.~~
	~~53 Donald MacKay’s information theory tries to do exactly this, and became the dominant~~
	~~paradigm in British Information Theory. MacKay’s theory was soon displaced as Wiener and~~
	~~Shannon’s American theory became the industry standard. Hayles, How We Became Posthuman :~~
	~~Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics. p. 56.~~

	Ibid. p. 54		Ibid. p. 54
	Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River		Erik Davis, Techgnosis : Myth, Magic + Mysticism in the Age of Information (New York: Three River
	Press, 1998). p. 86		Press, 1998). p. 86
	~~56 There is a very interesting story behind this math. When Shannon found the equation for~~
	~~information to be the same as the equation for entropy, he equated the two and saw information~~		[[Category:Book Pages]]
	~~as entropy. Wiener took this equation and reversed it, defining information as the opposite of~~
	~~entropy. In mathematical terms, this is only a difference between a + and – sign in the equation,~~
	~~but Wiener’s interpretation of information became the dominant paradigm for understanding~~
	~~information, a paradigm that allowed him to make the larger metaphysical and cosmological~~
	~~metaphors that eventually became the basis of transhumanist metaphysics. Ibid.~~
	~~57 Ibid. p. 90, Quoting Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the~~
	~~Machine (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1961).p. 36, 34~~[[Category:Book Pages]]
	[[Category:Marked for Editing]]		[[Category:Marked for Editing]]

Caseorganic at 23:00, 10 June 2011

2011-06-10T23:00:14Z

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	57 Ibid. p. 90, Quoting Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the		57 Ibid. p. 90, Quoting Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the
	Machine (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1961).p. 36, 34[[Category:Book Pages]]		Machine (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1961).p. 36, 34[[Category:Book Pages]]
	[[Category:~~Unfinished~~]]		[[Category:Marked for Editing]]

Caseorganic at 22:51, 10 June 2011

2011-06-10T22:51:29Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:51, 10 June 2011
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	===Definition===		===Definition===
	~~Information is a term used to .... is a term that describes.....~~

	~~It is the metaphor that defines society but doesn't really point to everything.~~
	~~It is only about maximally efficient communication.~~

	~~Claude Shannon's original definition.~~

	In our modern techno-cultural discourse, “information” has become a ubiquitous		In our modern techno-cultural discourse, “information” has become a ubiquitous
	term for all types of knowledge and communication, but this was not always the case. The		term for all types of knowledge and communication, but this was not always the case. The
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	prowess and control of information had kept us from all speaking German, and would		prowess and control of information had kept us from all speaking German, and would
	continue to keep us from speaking Russian.		continue to keep us from speaking Russian.

	Information was first formulated as a mathematical-theoretical entity by Claude		Information was first formulated as a mathematical-theoretical entity by Claude
	Shannon in his 1948 paper “The Mathematical Theory of Communication”. In this		Shannon in his 1948 paper “The Mathematical Theory of Communication”. In this
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	The enemy is dumb and blind, Wiener says, “defeated by our intelligence as		The enemy is dumb and blind, Wiener says, “defeated by our intelligence as
	thoroughly as by a sprinkle of holy water.”57		thoroughly as by a sprinkle of holy water.”57


	With Wiener, information becomes the cybernetic “holy water” that defeats		With Wiener, information becomes the cybernetic “holy water” that defeats
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	Shannon’s laws of efficient communication.		Shannon’s laws of efficient communication.

			==References==



	References

	N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman : Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and		N. Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman : Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and
	Informatics (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1999). p. 8		Informatics (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1999). p. 8

And.awarner at 22:50, 10 June 2011

2011-06-10T22:50:45Z

@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 efficiency in communication channels, allowing for the global telecommunications
 networks and internet we know today.
 There are several implications inherent in the idea of “information”. The first is a
@@ Line 57: / Line 47: @@
 communication against the onslaught of noise that is simultaneously required yet working
 in opposition to the pattern of communication.
 Perhaps the most profound implication of “information” is that it was formulated
 with no reference to “meaning”. Because it was formulated in reference to maximum
@@ Line 67: / Line 58: @@
 is always dependent on context, yet information theory ignores context in favor of
 mathematical ease.
 Shannon was aware of the limited applications of his theory of information. When
 scholars from other fields tried to use “information” as a means for conceptualizing social
@@ Line 72: / Line 64: @@
 notion of information as we use it in communication engineering and what you are doing
 here … the problem here is not so much finding the best encoding of symbols… but,
-rather, the determination of the semantic question of what to send and to whom to send
+rather, the determination of the semantic question of what to send and to whom to send it.
-it.”54 Despite Shannon’s care in applying information theory, information proved too
+Despite Shannon’s care in applying information theory, information proved too
 strong a meme to contain, leading many scholars to adapt this term while not considering
 the larger metaphysical implications of the concept. It is one of the central paradoxes of
-Transhumanism that it reduces all value to information, despite information’s inherent
+modern techno-culture that it reduces all value to information, despite information’s inherent
 lack of reference to value itself.
 Wiener himself often took to conflating information with meaning. In The Human
 Use of Human Beings, one of the central documents in the foundation of Cybernetics,
@@ Line 108: / Line 92: @@
 The enemy is dumb and blind, Wiener says, “defeated by our intelligence as
 thoroughly as by a sprinkle of holy water.”57
 Ibid. p. 54
@@ Line 120: / Line 138: @@
 metaphors that eventually became the basis of transhumanist metaphysics. Ibid.
 Ibid. p. 90, Quoting Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the
-Machine (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1961).p. 36, 34
+Machine (New York: M.I.T. Press, 1961).p. 36, 34[[Category:Book Pages]]
 [[Category:Unfinished]]